《中國(guó)人的性格》是美國(guó)傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會(huì)觀察撰寫(xiě)的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀(jì)末問(wèn)世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書(shū)中融合人類學(xué)視角與傳教士立場(chǎng)，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態(tài)。

全書(shū)以27個(gè)主題章節(jié)剖析中國(guó)人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學(xué)，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會(huì)現(xiàn)象。通過(guò)對(duì)比西方工業(yè)文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環(huán)境適應(yīng)力與疼痛耐受性。書(shū)中案例多源自山東鄉(xiāng)村生活經(jīng)歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結(jié)論因宗教立場(chǎng)存在視角爭(zhēng)議。該著作開(kāi)創(chuàng)西方研究中國(guó)國(guó)民性先河，被譯成多國(guó)文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第二十章 缺乏同情

“仁”向來(lái)被中國(guó)人列為“五常”之首。“仁”字在漢字中由“人”和“二”兩部分組成，可能是想表明，仁產(chǎn)生于兩個(gè)人的相互交往。對(duì)文字本身的意義，我們沒(méi)必要深究，因?yàn)樗⒉荒艽砩睢斆鞯挠^察家應(yīng)該了解的是現(xiàn)實(shí)生活。不過(guò)，盡管有一些本該了解真相的人常常作出淺薄的論斷，認(rèn)為中國(guó)人不具備仁慈的品質(zhì)，這絕不是事實(shí)。孟子曰：“惻隱之心，人皆有之。”儒教教人溫良，佛教勸人慈悲，這不能不對(duì)中國(guó)人產(chǎn)生顯著的影響。更何況，中國(guó)人有強(qiáng)烈注重實(shí)際的天性。他們一旦要“行善”時(shí)，肯定會(huì)找到大量行善的機(jī)會(huì)，并做出各種“善事”來(lái)。

中國(guó)人引以為榮的慈善行為有設(shè)立保育堂，建立麻瘋病院、老人收容院和免費(fèi)學(xué)校等。因?yàn)橹袊?guó)缺乏實(shí)用的戶口統(tǒng)計(jì)，現(xiàn)在可能還不知道這類機(jī)構(gòu)究竟有多少。戴維·希爾牧師曾調(diào)查過(guò)中國(guó)中部的一些地方，發(fā)現(xiàn)杭州城有三十家慈善機(jī)構(gòu)，每年的開(kāi)支大約為八千英鎊。但是，冒昧地說(shuō)，這些慈善機(jī)構(gòu)仍然相對(duì)不足，因?yàn)橹袊?guó)人口眾多，尤其是大鬧市區(qū)人口密集，他們需要大量慈善機(jī)構(gòu)。

中國(guó)發(fā)大水或鬧饑荒時(shí)，各地普遍設(shè)立施粥棚，也為窮人捐贈(zèng)衣物。這些事也不全由政府來(lái)做，民眾自己也互相幫助，共度難關(guān)。這類耗資巨大的事例并不罕見(jiàn)。災(zāi)荒年頭，逃荒的災(zāi)民潮水般地涌進(jìn)城市，相當(dāng)必要時(shí)，他們被允許在車棚里、空房子里住下來(lái)。因?yàn)榧偃邕@些成群結(jié)隊(duì)的災(zāi)民遭到拒絕，他們就會(huì)采取行動(dòng)，實(shí)行報(bào)復(fù)。這時(shí)，讓步是最明智的做法。

另外，各省在外地設(shè)立的同鄉(xiāng)會(huì)也屬于慈善機(jī)構(gòu)。它主要照顧離鄉(xiāng)在外，窮困潦倒的人，或者客死他鄉(xiāng)、遺體無(wú)法運(yùn)回家鄉(xiāng)的人。這是一種保險(xiǎn)性質(zhì)的日常性事務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)，中國(guó)人大概也這樣認(rèn)為。

在一些勸人行“善”的書(shū)中。有的人對(duì)自己做過(guò)的惡事直言不諱，引以為恥，也宣揚(yáng)自己做過(guò)的善事，并引以為榮，善惡的結(jié)果會(huì)在判官的生死簿上顯示出來(lái)，并決定著他們的來(lái)世。這種簡(jiǎn)單的報(bào)應(yīng)觀念清楚地反映了中國(guó)人注重實(shí)際的天性，就像我們已經(jīng)討論過(guò)的，他們總是執(zhí)著地為來(lái)世考慮。在他們眼里，來(lái)世不過(guò)是現(xiàn)世的伸展與延續(xù)。大部分中國(guó)人樂(lè)于行善的目的是期望獲得回報(bào)。有時(shí)，公開(kāi)善行背后利己的動(dòng)機(jī)，會(huì)帶來(lái)不可思議的后果。１８８９年４月，杭州的官吏為幫助因黃河泛濫而受災(zāi)的難民，試圖通過(guò)對(duì)城中茶館賣出的每杯茶水抽稅來(lái)籌集資金。但古都的民眾對(duì)這一做法的態(tài)度就像１７７３年波士頓市民對(duì)茶稅的態(tài)度一樣。官吏貼出告示：“行此無(wú)上善舉，必得善報(bào)。”他們想以此來(lái)贏得民眾的支持。可是，民眾與茶館聯(lián)合起來(lái)，進(jìn)行抵制，終于使這一計(jì)劃徹底破產(chǎn)。滿城居民如此團(tuán)結(jié)一致，共同抵制強(qiáng)制人獲得的“善報(bào)”，對(duì)我們來(lái)說(shuō)，確實(shí)罕見(jiàn)。

為窮人提供棺材；把暴露野外的人骨頭收集起來(lái)并重新埋葬；燒掉撿到的字紙，以免它們?cè)庖C瀆；買活魚(yú)、活鳥(niǎo)，把它們放回大自然；還有些地方，為需要者贈(zèng)送神秘的膏藥，免費(fèi)種痘，低價(jià)出售或贈(zèng)送勸世良言，這些都成了中國(guó)人行善的主要內(nèi)容。因此，也正如我們所看到的一樣，真正對(duì)人懷有善良意愿的行為就退居其次了。而這些陳舊的做法又幾乎如出一轍，千篇一律，做的人也極少動(dòng)感情，動(dòng)頭腦。站在岸邊，看漁人撒網(wǎng)、撿魚(yú)，撤網(wǎng)、撿魚(yú)，當(dāng)然比幫助站在家門(mén)口的乞丐容易多了。

況且，對(duì)注重實(shí)際的中國(guó)人來(lái)說(shuō)，有一點(diǎn)是十分重要的，那就是魚(yú)一人水，鳥(niǎo)一出籠，它們就自謀生路去吧，他們應(yīng)做的已經(jīng)做完了。鳥(niǎo)兒或魚(yú)兒們不能指望放回它們的人會(huì)為它們提供更好的生活條件。對(duì)人來(lái)說(shuō)，他們只是在積德，在做自己的事，至于魚(yú)或鳥(niǎo)以后的命運(yùn)，他們可管不了。

在中國(guó)，“善門(mén)難開(kāi)”，關(guān)上更難。沒(méi)有誰(shuí)能預(yù)料到愿望良好的行為在將來(lái)會(huì)有什么樣的結(jié)果，也沒(méi)人知道因此而招來(lái)承擔(dān)更多責(zé)任的危險(xiǎn)。明智的做法就是對(duì)自己的行為時(shí)刻謹(jǐn)慎。一個(gè)住在中國(guó)內(nèi)地的傳教士，曾應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)匾恍┘澥康恼?qǐng)求，幫助一個(gè)雙目失明的乞丐，為他治眼，其實(shí)，不過(guò)是小小的白內(nèi)障而已。后來(lái)，乞丐的眼痊愈了，他重獲光明。然而，那些紳士知道之后，卻說(shuō)傳教士砸了乞丐的飯碗，因?yàn)椋F(xiàn)在不能再討飯了。因此，傳教士應(yīng)該養(yǎng)活他，雇他看門(mén)。有時(shí)，一個(gè)很少與其他人交往的慈善的老太太，款待其他的老太婆——她們看起來(lái)似乎應(yīng)該得到周濟(jì)，但是她卻會(huì)成為這些人殘酷榨取的犧牲品。我們?cè)?tīng)說(shuō)過(guò)這類事情，雖然只有一例，但估計(jì)并不罕見(jiàn)。我們不能不承認(rèn)，中國(guó)人很少有發(fā)自內(nèi)心的仁慈，哪怕是那么一丁點(diǎn)兒也沒(méi)有。

瘟疫、饑荒爆發(fā)或黃河大決口時(shí)，地方政府或中央政府遲早總會(huì)派人到災(zāi)區(qū)，試圖幫助災(zāi)民。不過(guò)，他們從不采取長(zhǎng)久性的、大規(guī)模的防范措施，僅僅是采取一些權(quán)宜之計(jì)，似乎這種事只會(huì)發(fā)生一次。對(duì)災(zāi)民的幫助也經(jīng)常在關(guān)鍵時(shí)刻偏偏中止了。比如說(shuō)，人們經(jīng)過(guò)長(zhǎng)期痛苦的煎熬，好不容易挺到了早春，這是個(gè)最容易發(fā)病的季節(jié)，可是政府只給一點(diǎn)兒救濟(jì)就把他們打發(fā)了，要他們趕快回家，老實(shí)干活。理由不用說(shuō)，誰(shuí)都知道：政府的錢用完了，田里還正需要人干活。麥?zhǔn)涨埃灰麄冇谐缘模妥銐蛄恕Ｕ埠芮宄绻唤o一點(diǎn)救濟(jì)，天氣轉(zhuǎn)暖，瘟疫就可能爆發(fā)，人們大批地死去要比小災(zāi)難更令人注意，更易引起麻煩。

“臘八舍粥”也一樣，是典型中國(guó)式的慈善活動(dòng)，它也只注重活動(dòng)的表面形式。臘月初八這天，平時(shí)沒(méi)機(jī)會(huì)行善的人，早已準(zhǔn)備好要慷慨施舍。按照風(fēng)俗，他們一整天會(huì)向所有來(lái)討粥的人施舍，不過(guò)，這些粥都是最便宜、最難讓人下咽的。這就是所謂的“行善”，人們以此來(lái)積德。如果某一年碰巧豐收，可能就沒(méi)有人來(lái)討粥了，因?yàn)榧词垢F光蛋在家里也可以吃到同樣或更好的飯食。即便如此，仍不足以使施粥者停止舍粥，或換上更好的食物。一天過(guò)去了，沒(méi)有一個(gè)人來(lái)討粥，它們最終被倒進(jìn)了豬槽。而行善的富人們也帶著悠悠的滿足感回屋睡覺(jué)去了。今年的義務(wù)他己盡了，良心也得到了滿足，他是個(gè)仁慈的人。但假如遇到了壞年頭，米價(jià)暴漲，他們就沒(méi)心思行善積德了，因?yàn)樗麄儭靶胁黄鹕啤薄?/p>

前面，我們說(shuō)過(guò)對(duì)乞丐的施舍，在中國(guó)，成群的乞丐隨處可見(jiàn)。他們所得的施舍有點(diǎn)保險(xiǎn)的性質(zhì)。眾所周知，城里的乞丐常常組成強(qiáng)大的幫派，他們遠(yuǎn)比與自己爭(zhēng)斗的任何幫派都更強(qiáng)大，因?yàn)樗麄円粺o(wú)所失，也無(wú)所畏懼，這可是無(wú)與倫比的優(yōu)勢(shì)。如果一個(gè)小店主拒絕了一個(gè)乞丐的乞討——他會(huì)像日內(nèi)瓦仲裁那樣鐫而不舍，就會(huì)有成群的乞丐前來(lái)騷擾。就連一個(gè)精神麻木的中國(guó)人也會(huì)感到這是個(gè)沉重的負(fù)擔(dān)，乞丐們要等到自己不斷升級(jí)加碼的要求完全滿足之后，才讓店主繼續(xù)做生意。店主和乞丐對(duì)拒絕的結(jié)果都很清楚，因而使得這類善行就像涓涓細(xì)流，綿延不絕。

對(duì)經(jīng)常可以看到的，川流不息的難民，人們也同樣對(duì)待。通過(guò)這些，你將認(rèn)識(shí)，這不僅僅是使難民受惠，更重要的是行善者以為自己因此可以獲得福報(bào)，中國(guó)人施惠的每一個(gè)對(duì)象，都可被看成“小情人”，行善者的一切行為目的只是使自己在現(xiàn)在或未來(lái)生活得更好些。

對(duì)于中國(guó)人這種扭曲的慈善行為，應(yīng)該再加上重要的一點(diǎn)，即無(wú)論何種事情，好事也罷，惡事也罷，都不能逃脫日益萎縮衰退的中國(guó)政體的壓榨，而且這種壓榨和政府的其他計(jì)劃一樣組織嚴(yán)密。想知道一個(gè)中國(guó)人把賑濟(jì)款據(jù)為己有的全部細(xì)節(jié)，簡(jiǎn)直比登天還難。不過(guò)，在一些緊急關(guān)頭，如大饑荒中，可以充分肯定，即使民眾的深重苦難也不能阻止元恥的官吏侵吞手中的賑濟(jì)款。此時(shí)，人們的注意力都集中在民眾的苦難及賑濟(jì)款上，如果外界既不知道款子的籌集情況，也不知道其使用情況，結(jié)果就可想而知了。

當(dāng)中國(guó)人開(kāi)始更多地了解西方文明的時(shí)候，他們所了解的只是西方人強(qiáng)迫他們接受的西方文明中最壞的成分。在他們看來(lái)，基督教世界遍布非基督教世界無(wú)法比擬的慈善機(jī)構(gòu)，這肯定是件了不起的事。這也可能會(huì)促使他們?nèi)ヌ角箅[藏在這一意味深長(zhǎng)的事實(shí)背后的東西。我們還應(yīng)該提醒中國(guó)人去注意一個(gè)令人深思的細(xì)節(jié)：表示“仁”的漢字與其他和感情有關(guān)的漢字不同，它沒(méi)有以心字作偏旁，這說(shuō)明，它代表的美德通常是缺少誠(chéng)意的，其結(jié)果，我們已經(jīng)知道了。慈善活動(dòng)應(yīng)是一種本能，無(wú)論有無(wú)明確的必要，都要找機(jī)會(huì)表現(xiàn)出來(lái)。中國(guó)人完全缺乏這種精神，這的確不是人類的進(jìn)步。如果中國(guó)人想創(chuàng)造出真正的慈善，就必須經(jīng)歷西方人過(guò)去的經(jīng)歷，把仁慈變成人生的重要成分。

英文原版：

XXI.THE ABSENCE OFSYMPATHY

ATTENTION has been directed to that aspect of Chinese life which is represented by the term"benevolence,"the very first of the so-called Constant Virtues.Benevolence is well-wishing.Sympathy is fellow-feeling.Our present object, having premised that the Chinese do practise a certain amount of benevolence,is to illustrate the proposition that they are conspicuous for a deficiency of sympathy.

It must ever be borne in mind that the population of China is dense.The disasters of flood and famine are of periodical occurrence in almost all parts of the Empire.The Chinese desire for posterity is so overmastering a passion that circum- stances which ought to operate as an effectual check upon population,and which in many other countries would do so, appear to be in China relatively inefficient for that purpose. The very poorest people continue to marry their children at an early age,and these children bring up large families,just as if there were any provision for their maintenance.The result of these and other causes is that a large proportion of the population lives,in the most literal sense,from hand to mouth.This may be said to be the universal condition of day-labourers,and it is a condition from which there appears to be no possibility of escape.No foreigner can long deal with the ordinary Chinese whom he everywhere meets,without at once becoming aware of the fact that hardly any one has any ready money.The moment that anything whatever is to be done,the first demand is for cash,that those who are to do it may get something to eat,the presumption being that as yet they have had nothing.It is often very hard even for well-to-do people to raise the most moderate sums of money when it suddenly becomes necessary to do so.There is a most significant expression commonly employed on such oc- casions,which speaks of a man who is obliged to collect a sum with which to prosecute a lawsuit,to arrange for a funeral,and the like,as"putting through a famine,"that is,acting like a -,0 and the bearing of this fact upon the relations of the people to one another must be evident to the most careless observer. The result of the pressure for the means of subsistence,and of the habits which this pressure cultivates and fixes,even after the immediate demand is no longer urgent,is to bring life down to a hard materialistic basis,in which there are but two prominent facts.Money and food are twin foci of the Chinese ellipse,and it is about them as centres that the whole social life of the people revolves.

The deep poverty of the masses of the people of the Chinese Empire,and the terrible struggle constantly going on to secure even the barest subsistence,have familiarised them with the most pitiable exhibitions of suffering of every conceivable variety.Whatever might be the benevolent impulses of any Chinese,he is from the nature of the case wholly helples to relieve even a thousandth part of the misery which he sees about him all the time—misery multiplied many times in any year of special distress.A thoughtful Chinese must recognise the utter futility of the means which are employed to alleviate distress,whether by individual kindness or by government in- terference.All these methods,even when taken at their best, amount simply to a treatment of the symptoms,and do abso- lutely nothing towards removing disease.Their operation is akin to that of societies which should distribute smallpieces of ice among the victims of typhoid fever—so many ounces to each patient,with no hospitals,no dieting,no medicine,and no nursing.It is not,therefore,strange that the Chinese are not in practical ways more benevolent,but rather that,with the total lack of system,of prevision,and of supervision,be- nevolence continues at all.We are familiar with the phenom- enon of the effect,upon the most cultivated persons,of con- stant contact with misery which they have no power either to hinder or to help,for this is illustrated in every modern war. The first sight of blood causes a sinking of the epigastric nerves, and makes an indelible impression;but this soon wears away, and is succeeded by a comparative callousness,which, even to him who experiences it,is a perpetual surprise.In China there is always a social war,and every one is too accustomed to its sickening effects to give them more than a momentary attention.

One of the manifestations of Chinese lack of sympathy is their attitude towards those who are in any way physically de- formed.According to the popular belief,the lame,the blind, especially those who are blind of but one eye,the deaf,the bald,the cross-eyed,are all persons to be avoided.It appears to be the assumption that since the physical nature is defective, the moral nature must be so likewise. So far as our obser- vation extends,such persons are not treated with cruelty,but they excite very little of that sympathy which in Western lands is so freely and so spontaneously extended.They are looked upon as having been overtaken by a punishment for some secret sin,a theory exactly accordant with that of the ancient Jews.

The person who is so unfortunate as to be branded with some natural defect or some acquired blemish will not go long without being reminded of the fact.One of the mildest forms of this practice is that in which the peculiarity is employed as a description in such a way as to attract to it public attention. "Great elder brother with the pockmarks,"says an attendant in a dispensary to a patient,“from what village do you come?” It will not be singular if the man whose eyes are afflicted with strabismus hears an observation to the effect that“when the eyes look asquint,the heart is askew";or if the man who has no hair is reminded that“out of ten bald men,nine are de- ceitful,and the other would be so also,were he not dumb.” Such freaks of nature as albinos form an unceasing butt for a species of cheap wit,which appears never for an instant to be intermitted.The unfortunate possessor of peculiarities like this must resign himself (or herself)to a lifetime of this treat- ment,and happy will he be if his temperament admits of his listening to such talk in perpetual reiteration without becoming by turns furious and sullen.

The same excess of frankness is displayed towards those who exhibit any mental defects."This boy,"remarks a bystander, "is idiotic."The lad is probably not at all"idiotic,"but his undeveloped mind may easily become blighted by the con- stant repetition in his presence of the proposition that he has no mind at all.This is the universal method of treating all patients afficted with nervous diseases,or indeed with any other.A ll their peculiarities,the details of their behaviour, the method in which the disease is supposed to have originated, the symptoms which attend its exacerbations,are all public property,and are all detailed in the presence of the patient, who must be thoroughly accustomed to hearing himself de- scribed as“crazy,""half-witted,"“besotted in his intellect,” etc.,etc.

Among a people to whom the birth of male children is so vital a matter,it is not surprising that the fact of childlessness is a constant occasion of reproach and taunts,just as in the ancient days,when it was said of the mother of the prophet Samuel that“her adversary also provoked her sore,for to make her fret.”If it is supposed for any reason,or without reason,that a mother has quietly smothered one of her children, it will not be strange if the announcement of the same is pub- licly made to a stranger.

One of the most characteristic methods in which the Chinese lack of sympathy is manifested is in the treatment which brides receive on their wedding-day.They are often very young,are always timid,and are naturally terror-stricken at being sud- denly thrust among strangers. Customs vary widely,but there seems to be a general indifference to the feelings of the poor child thus exposed to the public gaze.In some places it is allowable for any one who chooses to turn back the curtains of the chair and stare at her.In other regions,the unmarried girls find it a source of keen enjoyment to post themselves at a convenient position as the bride passes,to throw upon her handfuls of hay-seed or chaff,which will obstinately adhere to her carefully oiled hair for a long time.Upon her emerg- ence from the chair at the house of her new parents,she is subjected to the same kind of criticism as a newly bought horse,with what feelings on her part it is not difficult to imagine.

Side by side with the punctilious ceremony which is so dear to the Chinese heart is the apparent inability to perceive that some things must be disagreeable to other persons,and should for that reason be avoided.A Chinese friend,who had not the smallest idea of saying what would be deficient in politeness,remarked to the writer that when he first saw foreigners it seemed most extraordinary that they should have beards that reached all round their faces just like those of monkeys, but he added,reassuringly,“I am quite used to it now!”The teacher who is asked in the presence of his pupils as to their capacity,replies before them all that the one nearest the door is much the brightest,and will be a graduate by the time he is twenty years of age,but the two at the next table are certainly the stupidest children he ever saw.That such observations have any reflex effect upon the pupils,never for a moment enters into the thought of any one.

The whole family life of the Chinese illustrates their lack of sympathy.While there are great differences in different households,and while from the nature of the case generalisa- tion is precarious,it is easy to see that most Chinese homes which are seen at all are by no means happy homes.It is impossible that they should be so,for they are deficient in that unity of feeling which to us seems so essential to real home life.A Chinese family is generally an association of individuals who are indissolubly tied together,having many of their interests the same,and many of them very different. The result is not our idea of a home,and it is not sympathy.

Daughters in China are from the beginning of their existence more or less unwelcome. This fact has a most important bearing on their whole subsequent career,and furnishes many significant illustrations of the absence of sympathy.

Mothers and daughters who pass their days in the nar- row confinement of a Chinese court under the conditions of Chinese life,are not likely to lack topics of disagreement,in which abusive language is indulged in with a freedom which the unconstraint of everyday life tends to promote.It is a popular saying,full of significance to those who know Chi- nese homes,that a mother cannot by reviling her own daughter make her cease to be her own daughter! When a daughter is once married she is regarded as having no more relations with her family than those which are inseparable from com- munity of origin.T here is a deep-seated reason for omitting daughters from all family registers.She is no longer our daughter,but the daughter-in-law of some one else.Human nature will assert itself in requiring visits to the mother’s home,at more or less frequent intervals,according to the local usage.I n some districts these visits are very numerous and very prolonged,while in others the custom seems to be to make them as few as possible,and liable to almost com- plete suspension for long periods in case of a death in the family.But whatever the details of usage,the principle holds good that the daughter-in-law belongs to the family of which she has become a part.When she goes to her mother's home, she goes on a strictly business basis.She takes with her it may be a quantity of sewing for her husband's family,which the wife's family must help her get through with. She is ac- companied on each of these visits by as many of her children as possible,both to have her take care of them and to have them out of the way when she is not at hand to look after them,and most especially to have them fed at the expense of the family of the maternal grandmother for as long a time as possible.In regions where visits of this sort are frequent,and where there are many daughters in a family,their constant raids on the old home are a source of perpetual terror to the whole family,and a serious tax on the common resources. For this reason these visits are often discouraged by the fathers and the brothers,while secretly favoured by the mothers. But as local custom fixes for them certain epochs, such as a definite date after the New-Year,special feast-days, etc.,the visits cannot be interdicted.

When the daughter-in-law returns to her mother-in-law,it is true of her,as the adage says of a thief,that she never comes back empty-handed.She must take a present of some sort for her mother-in-law,generally food.Neglect of this established rite,or inability to comply with it,will soon result in dramatic scenes.If the daughter is married into a family which is poor,or which has become so,and if she has brothers who are married,she will find that her visits to her mother are,in the language of the physicians,"contra-indicated."